Environmental Protection and Local Tradition: A Study of the Folklore of Assam
*Corresponding address: sonowal.queen@jbu.ac.in
Abstract
The North eastern part of the Indian subcontinent is known as the emerging hub of unique biological and cultural interaction. The biodiversity of the North East India is reflected in the customs and cultural traditions of the ethnic communities that reside in this ecologically biodiverse region. In local legends and myths, folk songs, oral traditions, proverbs, festivals and rituals, the richness of environmental diversity obtained vivid expression. These cultural forms celebrate nature and guide communities to adapt, foster preservation and conservation of natural resources. One such expression is found in the folktales, where local experiences are interwoven with mythical elements. This narrative embodies collective memory, moral values, ecological knowledge, indicating the community's close interconnections and traditional heritages. In Assam, the tradition of worshipping rivers, mountains, forests, animals and plants is not only witnessed in the rituals and festivals, but also in the esteemed folktales and fables. These narratives portray these spaces as spiritually animated realms guarded by supernatural entities and consequently, the preservation is volunteered, not forced. The current article aims to examine the ecological dimensions of the folklores and discuss how these narratives interconnect indigenous environmental knowledge with the traditional practice of conservation. These narratives by portraying the deep-rooted faith of the society, depict how people bind themselves with the nature. Further, this study examines how oral traditions contribute to the preservation of nature for future sustenance and local entrepreneurship development.
Keywords: Assam, Biodiversity, conservation, Environment sustainability, environment, Folktales, folktales, Local entrepreneurship development, Nature conservation, nature, North eastern India.
Introduction
The connection between human and nature is often reflected in the cultural traditions and belief systems of a society. In many societies folklore serve as a tool to pass on the knowledge from one generation to another. Through these myths, legends, songs, poems and riddles; knowledge about nature, morality and social values are transferred from one generation to another. Folklore work as a living repository preserving the history, tradition and culture of a community. In The Study of Folklore, according to Alan Dundes “Folklore includes myths, legends, folktales, jokes, proverbs, riddles, chants, charms, blessings, curses, oaths, insults, retorts, taunts, teases, toasts, tongue-twisters and greeting and leave-taking formulas. It also includes folk costumes, folk dance, folk drama, folk art, folk belief, folk medicine, folk instrumental music, folksongs, folk speeches, folk similes, folk metaphors and names.” 1 Apart from these, games, traditional housing patterns, food habits, weaving and dyeing practices, and numerous rituals also constitute important elements of folklore. Assam, endowed with diverse geographical features such as rivers, mountains, and vast forest landscapes, reflects these natural elements deeply in its folklore traditions. The close relationship between human life and nature in the region has shaped a rich body of folklore that embodies the cultural beliefs and ecological wisdom of the people. Many folk narratives, myths, and legends portray forests, rivers, animals, and natural spaces as sacred or inhabited by supernatural beings. Such beliefs often function as informal social mechanisms that regulate human behavior toward the environment.
This study primarily focuses on supernatural legends and examines their role in the protection and preservation of the environment. Through these legends, local communities develop a sense of respect, fear, and responsibility towards nature, which indirectly contributes to conservation practices. By analyzing selected folklore traditions of Assam, the study seeks to highlight how cultural beliefs and traditional narratives promote ecological awareness and sustainable interaction with the natural world.
Data analysis
The relationship between folklore, belief systems, and the natural environment has attracted the attention of scholars from different fields. Benudhar Rajkhowa's Assamese Demonology is a documentation of the supernatural beliefs in Assam. Another work is Folklore of Assam by Jogesh Das, Sacred Ecology by Fikret Berkes (1999) 2; Assamese Demonology by B. Rajkhowa (1968) 3; Folklore of Assam by Jogesh Das (1972) 4; Environmental and Ethical Issues in Mising Folklore by Shanti Doley (2017) 5; The Study of Folklore by Alan Dundes (1965) 1; Traditional Ecological Knowledge: Learning from Indigenous Practices for Environmental Sustainability, edited by Melissa K. Nelson and Dan Shilling (2018) 6; and Environmental and Ecological Sustainability Through Indigenous Traditions: Perspectives from the Global South, edited by Binay Kumar Pattnaik (2024) 7, are used as secondary sources for the present study.
Statement of the Problem
Despite the rich heritage of folklore in Assam, the environmental significance rooted in these traditions has often received limited scholarly attention. The local legends of Assam contain narratives that function as cultural mechanisms which guide human behavior toward nature and encourage respect for the natural environment. However, with the rapid process of modernization, these beliefs and traditional knowledge are gradually being forgotten. While modern conservation practices are largely based on scientific and technological approaches, supernatural legends and folk beliefs have historically contributed to the protection and conservation of nature in local communities. Keeping in cognizance, the current study has been designed with the following objectives: a. To study the relationship between folklore and nature in Assam. b. To understand how the supernatural beliefs and narratives promote environmental awareness and conservation practices. c. To discuss the contemporary relevance of these narratives on environmental protection.
Methodology
The present study is based on analysis of both primary and secondary sources. Secondary sources such as books, research articles, journals, and published works on folklore and environmental traditions in Assam are consulted to support the analysis. Oral interviews and informal discussions were also conducted with local population who are familiar with traditional folklore and legends.
Discussion
Folklore has always served as a reflection of the life, beliefs, and cultural practices of the society in which it originates. In Assam, supernatural legends constitute an important component of the region's folk tradition. These narratives frequently revolve around spirits, supernatural beings, and demi-gods or goddesses who are believed to inhabit the natural as well as the spiritual realm. Within these stories, some entities are depicted as benevolent protectors who guard villages, forests, rivers, and households, while others are portrayed as malevolent forces capable of bringing illness, misfortune, or natural calamities. Through such narratives, indigenous communities in Assam construct a symbolic boundary between the human world and the spirit world.
Many traditional Assamese legends speak of spirits associated with particular natural spaces such as forests, rivers, and old trees. Bak, an aqueous spirit, is mentioned in Benudhar Rajkhowa's Assamese Demonology as “fond of fish. His body emits an offensive smell which is translated to the very water over which he wanders. He catches fish by netting.” 3 Another water spirit is dot - “lives in channels, tanks, morasses, shaded out-of-the-way, places overgrown with watery plants”. These spirits are believed to protect water bodies by creating a sense of fear in the human mind regarding the possible dangers that may arise from crossing or disturbing them. Such narratives often function as cultural mechanisms that discourage excessive human interference in aquatic environments, including practices such as overfishing and the destruction of water vegetation. Another water spirits are ‘Datial or jankakharia’, spirits lives near water-courses; ‘Jalashai and Jalanarayan’, two brother spirits preside over water. The presence of such supernatural guardians in folk belief reflects the traditional perception that rivers, ponds, and wetlands are not merely physical resources but sacred spaces inhabited by powerful unseen beings. Consequently, these beliefs encourage people to approach water bodies with caution and reverence.
The valley, being covered by a large number of rivers, tributaries, and other water bodies, has given rise to a rich body of folklore associated with them. The immense power and mystery of water have created a sense of awe and curiosity about the underwater world among local communities. As a result, the origins of many aquatic plants and animals are often woven into local stories and legends. For example, a traditional belief found among the Missing community explains the origin of the river dolphins found in the Brahmaputra River and its tributaries. According to this legend, a woman who was considered incompetent in performing household chores was thrown into the river by the villagers, where she eventually transformed into a dolphin. Because of this belief, members of the Missing community consider themselves to share a kinship with the species and therefore refrain from killing the animal. Such narratives reflect how folklore can shape attitudes toward wildlife and contribute to the protection of certain species through cultural beliefs and practices.
While the practice of forest worship is commonly observed in the form of sacred groves or the veneration of particular trees, many traditional beliefs also attribute forests to a mysterious supernatural realm inhabited by various deities and spirits. In Assamese folklore, forests are often imagined as liminal spaces where the human world intersects with another unseen world. As a result, several supernatural beings are believed to reside within dense woods, ancient trees, and remote natural landscapes. These entities may function either as protectors of the forest or as potentially dangerous forces that punish those who disrespect or misuse natural resources. Such beliefs create a sense of caution and reverence toward forested areas among local communities. By associating forests with powerful supernatural beings, folklore discourages reckless exploitation of trees, animals, and other forest resources. In the Sundarbans, the practice of worshipping Bonbibi by both Hindus and Muslims reflect a shared belief in supernatural protection and blessings associated with the forest. Bonbibi is regarded as the guardian spirit of the mangrove forest, believed to protect those who enter the forest - such as honey collectors, woodcutters, and fishermen - from dangers, especially attacks by tigers. “With their small wooden boats, archaic fishing nets and steel vessels for collecting honey, they venture into the mangrove forests with a deep veneration for forest goddess Bonbibi. It was believed by many eighteenth-century Hindu writers that worship of Bonbibi commenced with the increase in fear in venturing the forests. It did not have any element of Hindu-Islamic religious divide inherent within the rituals across the islands, apart from little difference in the attire of the goddess. The forest workers, irrespective of religious associations, identify themselves indiscriminately as adherents of Bonbibi, since they believe that their survival depends upon the mercy of the goddess.” 7
In Assam, supernatural legends also include stories of spirits associated with particular trees and forest spaces. One such spirit is Chaman, whose name is believed to have originated from the Cham tree, as mentioned by B. Sharma. According to the legend, this spirit is believed to reside in Cham and Nahar trees. Folklore suggests that the spirit may attack or bring misfortune to humans when these trees are cut or harmed. Such narratives reflect the traditional belief that certain trees are inhabited by supernatural beings and therefore deserve respect and protection. By associating trees with powerful spirits, these legends create a sense of caution among people and discourage the unnecessary felling of particular tree species. In this way, the belief in spirits like Chaman functions not only as a supernatural explanation within folklore but also as a cultural mechanism that promotes the preservation of trees and forest resources.
Another important spirit in Assamese folklore is Bordoisila, which is often described as an aerial spirit. According to popular belief, Bordoisila appears in the form of a powerful storm that occurs particularly during the spring season in Assam. “She is a female spirit and lives with her husband in a far-off land. She visits her parents' home, which lies in this part of the country, once a year to enjoy the national festival of Bohag Bihu. She returns when the Bihu is ended.” The legend of Bordoisila reflects how natural phenomena such as storms and seasonal climatic changes are interpreted through folklore and mythological imagination. By personifying the storm as a supernatural being, local communities express their awe and respect for the forces of nature. Such beliefs also reveal how folklore helps people understand and explain environmental events that directly influence agricultural life and the natural landscape of Assam.
Apart from water, war, and forest spirits, animals also appear prominently in various folklore narratives. Among them, the snake occupies a significant place and is widely worshipped, as the tropical environment of the region supports a large diversity of snakes. “To an average Assamese cobra, when seen in pairs, are keepers of the paddy store-houses; if they are about, the stores will be abundant; he will not harm them. Some old shrines or even new namghars are frequently visited by pythons or other big snakes; some are even residents there in some unexplored dark corner. They are not to be killed; devotees are firm in their belief that these snakes will never harm those who come to pray.” 4
The presence of various supernatural entities associated with mysterious or sacred spaces contributed to a clear distinction between the human world and the spirit world in traditional belief systems. However, with the rapid increase in deforestation and the degradation of natural resources such as forests and water bodies, these traditional forms of knowledge have gradually been neglected and often dismissed as mere superstition. Although many folk legends may not be scientifically verifiable, they reflect a cultural framework of fear and reverence that ordinary people maintain toward the unknown. This sense of fear and respect historically functioned as an informal mechanism that restrained communities from engaging in the excessive exploitation or destruction of nature.
Conclusion
Supernatural legends reflect a deep cultural understanding of the relationship between human beings and the natural environment. Through narratives about water spirits, forest deities, aerial forces, and sacred animals, local communities express both their reverence for and fear of the natural world. These beliefs construct an ethical framework that regulates human interaction with nature, encouraging caution, respect, and restraint in the use of natural resources. These traditions show that environmental ethics were deeply embedded in the cultural worldview of Assamese society long before the emergence of modern environmental discourse. Folklore functioned as a powerful cultural mechanism that preserved ecological knowledge and encouraged sustainable interaction with nature through belief, ritual, and social practice. However, in the contemporary era of rapid modernization and urbanization, many of these traditional beliefs are gradually fading. As a result, the ecological wisdom embedded in folklore risks being overlooked or forgotten. Recognizing and documenting such traditions is therefore essential not only for preserving cultural heritage but also for understanding indigenous approaches to environmental conservation. By re-examining these narratives through an ecological lens, folklore can continue to offer valuable insights into sustainable living and the harmonious coexistence between humans and the natural world.
References
[1]Dundes Alan (1965) The Study of Folklore, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
[2]Berkes Fikret (1999) Sacred Ecology, Routledge
[3]Rajkhowa, B. (1968). Assamese demonology. Lawyer's Book Stall.
[4]Das Jogesh,1972, Folklore of Assam, National Book Trust, India
[5]Doley, Shanti (2017) Environmental and ethical issues in Mising folklore, Nagaland University DOI: http://hdl.handle.net/10603/219634
[6]Nelson, M. K., & Shilling, D. (Eds.). (2018). Traditional ecological knowledge: Learning from indigenous practices for environmental sustainability. Cambridge University Press.
[7]Sen Amrita, (2024) Forests, Folklores and Religion: Understanding Embedded ‘Ecological Wisdom’ in the Sundarbans, West Bengal, India; Environmental and Ecological Sustainability Through Indigenous Traditions Perspectives from the Global South. Springer